A new era dawned when Queen Elizabeth — the last Tudor monarch — died without an heir. The monarchy was temporarily displaced by the Commonwealth of England from 1649 to 1660 by Oliver Cromwell, but was restored — aka "The Restoration" — as Charles II was invited to take the throne. His father, Charles I, had been beheaded in 1649, and most of the jewelry we see from this period was at least stylistically related to this controversial political event. During this time, discoveries and innovations transformed England and Scotland, which were conjoined after a long period of feuding. Coffee became a new trendy beverage, with 600 coffeehouses in London all catering to a different type of clientele. This imported novelty beverage was possible because of the UK's rapidly expanding worldwide trade network. Not yet interested in acquiring territories, the island nation focused instead on making a fortune exporting wool and importing goods like slaves, sugar, and tea. Everyone (except the enslaved people, of course) benefited from the new merchant class that arose, and in the process the Royal Navy became the most powerful in the world. The look of London changed, too — after the Great Fire of 1666, Christopher Wren was hired to rebuild the city's damaged churches, with his greatest accomplishment being St. Paul's Cathedral.